Third, addresses the fact that no two cells are identical. Over many cycles, small differences in self-discharge or internal resistance cause cell voltages to diverge. Without balancing, some cells would overcharge while others remain undercharged, rapidly destroying the pack. Andrea describes two balancing methods: passive balancing (dissipating excess energy as heat through resistors) and active balancing (shuttling energy from high-voltage cells to low-voltage cells, which is more efficient but complex).

: A detailed 24-page PDF preview, including naming conventions and Li-ion cell modeling, is available via PagePlace .

Most BMS textbooks are written by chemists or theoretical EE professors. Andrea is a .